# ECMAScript Modules

<!--introduced_in=v8.5.0-->
<!-- type=misc -->

> Stability: 1 - Experimental

## Introduction

<!--name=esm-->

ECMAScript modules are [the official standard format][] to package JavaScript
code for reuse. Modules are defined using a variety of [`import`][] and
[`export`][] statements.

Node.js fully supports ECMAScript modules as they are currently specified and
provides limited interoperability between them and the existing module format,
[CommonJS][].

Node.js contains support for ES Modules based upon the
[Node.js EP for ES Modules][] and the [ECMAScript-modules implementation][].

Expect major changes in the implementation including interoperability support,
specifier resolution, and default behavior.

## Enabling

<!-- type=misc -->

Experimental support for ECMAScript modules is enabled by default.
Node.js will treat the following as ES modules when passed to `node` as the
initial input, or when referenced by `import` statements within ES module code:

* Files ending in `.mjs`.

* Files ending in `.js`, or extensionless files, when the nearest parent
  `package.json` file contains a top-level field `"type"` with a value of
  `"module"`.

* Strings passed in as an argument to `--eval` or `--print`, or piped to
  `node` via `STDIN`, with the flag `--input-type=module`.

Node.js will treat as CommonJS all other forms of input, such as `.js` files
where the nearest parent `package.json` file contains no top-level `"type"`
field, or string input without the flag `--input-type`. This behavior is to
preserve backward compatibility. However, now that Node.js supports both
CommonJS and ES modules, it is best to be explicit whenever possible. Node.js
will treat the following as CommonJS when passed to `node` as the initial input,
or when referenced by `import` statements within ES module code:

* Files ending in `.cjs`.

* Files ending in `.js`, or extensionless files, when the nearest parent
  `package.json` file contains a top-level field `"type"` with a value of
  `"commonjs"`.

* Strings passed in as an argument to `--eval` or `--print`, or piped to
  `node` via `STDIN`, with the flag `--input-type=commonjs`.

### <code>package.json</code> <code>"type"</code> field

Files ending with `.js` or `.mjs`, or lacking any extension,
will be loaded as ES modules when the nearest parent `package.json` file
contains a top-level field `"type"` with a value of `"module"`.

The nearest parent `package.json` is defined as the first `package.json` found
when searching in the current folder, that folder’s parent, and so on up
until the root of the volume is reached.

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// package.json
{
  "type": "module"
}
```

```sh
# In same folder as above package.json
node my-app.js # Runs as ES module
```

If the nearest parent `package.json` lacks a `"type"` field, or contains
`"type": "commonjs"`, extensionless and `.js` files are treated as CommonJS.
If the volume root is reached and no `package.json` is found,
Node.js defers to the default, a `package.json` with no `"type"`
field.

`import` statements of `.js` and extensionless files are treated as ES modules
if the nearest parent `package.json` contains `"type": "module"`.

```js
// my-app.js, part of the same example as above
import './startup.js'; // Loaded as ES module because of package.json
```

Package authors should include the `"type"` field, even in packages where all
sources are CommonJS. Being explicit about the `type` of the package will
future-proof the package in case the default type of Node.js ever changes, and
it will also make things easier for build tools and loaders to determine how the
files in the package should be interpreted.

### Package Scope and File Extensions

A folder containing a `package.json` file, and all subfolders below that
folder down until the next folder containing another `package.json`, is
considered a _package scope_. The `"type"` field defines how `.js` and
extensionless files should be treated within a particular `package.json` file’s
package scope. Every package in a project’s `node_modules` folder contains its
own `package.json` file, so each project’s dependencies have their own package
scopes. A `package.json` lacking a `"type"` field is treated as if it contained
`"type": "commonjs"`.

The package scope applies not only to initial entry points (`node my-app.js`)
but also to files referenced by `import` statements and `import()` expressions.

```js
// my-app.js, in an ES module package scope because there is a package.json
// file in the same folder with "type": "module".

import './startup/init.js';
// Loaded as ES module since ./startup contains no package.json file,
// and therefore inherits the ES module package scope from one level up.

import 'commonjs-package';
// Loaded as CommonJS since ./node_modules/commonjs-package/package.json
// lacks a "type" field or contains "type": "commonjs".

import './node_modules/commonjs-package/index.js';
// Loaded as CommonJS since ./node_modules/commonjs-package/package.json
// lacks a "type" field or contains "type": "commonjs".
```

Files ending with `.mjs` are always loaded as ES modules regardless of package
scope.

Files ending with `.cjs` are always loaded as CommonJS regardless of package
scope.

```js
import './legacy-file.cjs';
// Loaded as CommonJS since .cjs is always loaded as CommonJS.

import 'commonjs-package/src/index.mjs';
// Loaded as ES module since .mjs is always loaded as ES module.
```

The `.mjs` and `.cjs` extensions may be used to mix types within the same
package scope:

* Within a `"type": "module"` package scope, Node.js can be instructed to
  interpret a particular file as CommonJS by naming it with a `.cjs` extension
  (since both `.js` and `.mjs` files are treated as ES modules within a
  `"module"` package scope).

* Within a `"type": "commonjs"` package scope, Node.js can be instructed to
  interpret a particular file as an ES module by naming it with an `.mjs`
  extension (since both `.js` and `.cjs` files are treated as CommonJS within a
  `"commonjs"` package scope).

### <code>--input-type</code> flag

Strings passed in as an argument to `--eval` or `--print` (or `-e` or `-p`), or
piped to `node` via `STDIN`, will be treated as ES modules when the
`--input-type=module` flag is set.

```sh
node --input-type=module --eval "import { sep } from 'path'; console.log(sep);"

echo "import { sep } from 'path'; console.log(sep);" | node --input-type=module
```

For completeness there is also `--input-type=commonjs`, for explicitly running
string input as CommonJS. This is the default behavior if `--input-type` is
unspecified.

## Packages

### Package Entry Points

There are two fields that can define entry points for a package: `"main"` and
`"exports"`. The `"main"` field is supported in all versions of Node.js, but its
capabilities are limited: it only defines the main entry point of the package.
The `"exports"` field, part of [Package Exports][], provides an alternative to
`"main"` where the package main entry point can be defined while also
encapsulating the package, preventing any other entry points besides those
defined in `"exports"`. If package entry points are defined in both `"main"` and
`"exports"`, the latter takes precedence in versions of Node.js that support
`"exports"`. [Conditional Exports][] can also be used within `"exports"` to
define different package entry points per environment.

#### <code>package.json</code> <code>"main"</code>

The `package.json` `"main"` field defines the entry point for a package,
whether the package is included into CommonJS via `require` or into an ES
module via `import`.

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/es-module-package/package.json
{
  "type": "module",
  "main": "./src/index.js"
}
```

```js
// ./my-app.mjs

import { something } from 'es-module-package';
// Loads from ./node_modules/es-module-package/src/index.js
```

An attempt to `require` the above `es-module-package` would attempt to load
`./node_modules/es-module-package/src/index.js` as CommonJS, which would throw
an error as Node.js would not be able to parse the `export` statement in
CommonJS.

As with `import` statements, for ES module usage the value of `"main"` must be
a full path including extension: `"./index.mjs"`, not `"./index"`.

If the `package.json` `"type"` field is omitted, a `.js` file in `"main"` will
be interpreted as CommonJS.

The `"main"` field can point to exactly one file, regardless of whether the
package is referenced via `require` (in a CommonJS context) or `import` (in an
ES module context).

#### Package Exports

By default, all subpaths from a package can be imported (`import 'pkg/x.js'`).
Custom subpath aliasing and encapsulation can be provided through the
`"exports"` field.

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/es-module-package/package.json
{
  "exports": {
    "./submodule": "./src/submodule.js"
  }
}
```

```js
import submodule from 'es-module-package/submodule';
// Loads ./node_modules/es-module-package/src/submodule.js
```

In addition to defining an alias, subpaths not defined by `"exports"` will
throw when an attempt is made to import them:

```js
import submodule from 'es-module-package/private-module.js';
// Throws ERR_MODULE_NOT_FOUND
```

> Note: this is not a strong encapsulation as any private modules can still be
> loaded by absolute paths.

Folders can also be mapped with package exports:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/es-module-package/package.json
{
  "exports": {
    "./features/": "./src/features/"
  }
}
```

```js
import feature from 'es-module-package/features/x.js';
// Loads ./node_modules/es-module-package/src/features/x.js
```

If a package has no exports, setting `"exports": false` can be used instead of
`"exports": {}` to indicate the package does not intend for submodules to be
exposed.

Any invalid exports entries will be ignored. This includes exports not
starting with `"./"` or a missing trailing `"/"` for directory exports.

Array fallback support is provided for exports, similarly to import maps
in order to be forwards-compatible with possible fallback workflows in future:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
{
  "exports": {
    "./submodule": ["not:valid", "./submodule.js"]
  }
}
```

Since `"not:valid"` is not a supported target, `"./submodule.js"` is used
instead as the fallback, as if it were the only target.

Defining a `"."` export will define the main entry point for the package,
and will always take precedence over the `"main"` field in the `package.json`.

This allows defining a different entry point for Node.js versions that support
ECMAScript modules and versions that don't, for example:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
{
  "main": "./main-legacy.cjs",
  "exports": {
    ".": "./main-modern.cjs"
  }
}
```

#### Conditional Exports

Conditional exports provide a way to map to different paths depending on
certain conditions. They are supported for both CommonJS and ES module imports.

For example, a package that wants to provide different ES module exports for
Node.js and the browser can be written:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/pkg/package.json
{
  "type": "module",
  "main": "./index.js",
  "exports": {
    "./feature": {
      "browser": "./feature-browser.js",
      "default": "./feature-default.js"
    }
  }
}
```

When resolving the `"."` export, if no matching target is found, the `"main"`
will be used as the final fallback.

The conditions supported in Node.js are matched in the following order:

1. `"require"` - matched when the package is loaded via `require()`.
  _This is currently only supported behind the
  `--experimental-conditional-exports` flag._
2. `"node"` - matched for any Node.js environment. Can be a CommonJS or ES
   module file. _This is currently only supported behind the
  `--experimental-conditional-exports` flag._
3. `"default"` - the generic fallback that will always match if no other
   more specific condition is matched first. Can be a CommonJS or ES module
   file.

Using the `"require"` condition it is possible to define a package that will
have a different exported value for CommonJS and ES modules, which can be a
hazard in that it can result in having two separate instances of the same
package in use in an application, which can cause a number of bugs.

Other conditions such as `"browser"`, `"electron"`, `"deno"`, `"react-native"`,
etc. could be defined in other runtimes or tools.

#### Exports Sugar

If the `"."` export is the only export, the `"exports"` field provides sugar
for this case being the direct `"exports"` field value.

If the `"."` export has a fallback array or string value, then the `"exports"`
field can be set to this value directly.

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
{
  "exports": {
    ".": "./main.js"
  }
}
```

can be written:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
{
  "exports": "./main.js"
}
```

When using [Conditional Exports][], the rule is that all keys in the object
mapping must not start with a `"."` otherwise they would be indistinguishable
from exports subpaths.

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
{
  "exports": {
    ".": {
      "require": "./main.cjs",
      "default": "./main.js"
    }
  }
}
```

can be written:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
{
  "exports": {
    "require": "./main.cjs",
    "default": "./main.js"
  }
}
```

If writing any exports value that mixes up these two forms, an error will be
thrown:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
{
  // Throws on resolution!
  "exports": {
    "./feature": "./lib/feature.js",
    "require": "./main.cjs",
    "default": "./main.js"
  }
}
```

### Dual CommonJS/ES Module Packages

Prior to the introduction of support for ES modules in Node.js, it was a common
pattern for package authors to include both CommonJS and ES module JavaScript
sources in their package, with `package.json` `"main"` specifying the CommonJS
entry point and `package.json` `"module"` specifying the ES module entry point.
This enabled Node.js to run the CommonJS entry point while build tools such as
bundlers used the ES module entry point, since Node.js ignored (and still
ignores) the top-level `"module"` field.

Node.js can now run ES module entry points, and a package can contain both
CommonJS and ES module entry points (either via separate specifiers such as
`'pkg'` and `'pkg/es-module'`, or both at the same specifier via [Conditional
Exports][] with the `--experimental-conditional-exports` flag). Unlike in the
scenario where `"module"` is only used by bundlers, or ES module files are
transpiled into CommonJS on the fly before evaluation by Node.js, the files
referenced by the ES module entry point are evaluated as ES modules.

#### Dual Package Hazard

When an application is using a package that provides both CommonJS and ES module
sources, there is a risk of certain bugs if both versions of the package get
loaded. This potential comes from the fact that the `pkgInstance` created by
`const pkgInstance = require('pkg')` is not the same as the `pkgInstance`
created by `import pkgInstance from 'pkg'` (or an alternative main path like
`'pkg/module'`). This is the “dual package hazard,” where two versions of the
same package can be loaded within the same runtime environment. While it is
unlikely that an application or package would intentionally load both versions
directly, it is common for an application to load one version while a dependency
of the application loads the other version. This hazard can happen because
Node.js supports intermixing CommonJS and ES modules, and can lead to unexpected
behavior.

If the package main export is a constructor, an `instanceof` comparison of
instances created by the two versions returns `false`, and if the export is an
object, properties added to one (like `pkgInstance.foo = 3`) are not present on
the other. This differs from how `import` and `require` statements work in
all-CommonJS or all-ES module environments, respectively, and therefore is
surprising to users. It also differs from the behavior users are familiar with
when using transpilation via tools like [Babel][] or [`esm`][].

#### Writing Dual Packages While Avoiding or Minimizing Hazards

First, the hazard described in the previous section occurs when a package
contains both CommonJS and ES module sources and both sources are provided for
use in Node.js, either via separate main entry points or exported paths. A
package could instead be written where any version of Node.js receives only
CommonJS sources, and any separate ES module sources the package may contain
could be intended only for other environments such as browsers. Such a package
would be usable by any version of Node.js, since `import` can refer to CommonJS
files; but it would not provide any of the advantages of using ES module syntax.

A package could also switch from CommonJS to ES module syntax in a breaking
change version bump. This has the obvious disadvantage that the newest version
of the package would only be usable in ES module-supporting versions of Node.js.

Every pattern has tradeoffs, but there are two broad approaches that satisfy the
following conditions:

1. The package is usable via both `require` and `import`.
1. The package is usable in both current Node.js and older versions of Node.js
   that lack support for ES modules.
1. The package main entry point, e.g. `'pkg'` can be used by both `require` to
   resolve to a CommonJS file and by `import` to resolve to an ES module file.
   (And likewise for exported paths, e.g. `'pkg/feature'`.)
1. The package provides named exports, e.g. `import { name } from 'pkg'` rather
   than `import pkg from 'pkg'; pkg.name`.
1. The package is potentially usable in other ES module environments such as
   browsers.
1. The hazards described in the previous section are avoided or minimized.

##### Approach #1: Use an ES Module Wrapper

Write the package in CommonJS or transpile ES module sources into CommonJS, and
create an ES module wrapper file that defines the named exports. Using
[Conditional Exports][] via the `--experimental-conditional-exports` flag, the
ES module wrapper is used for `import` and the CommonJS entry point for
`require`.

> Note: While `--experimental-conditional-exports` is flagged, a package
> using this pattern will throw when loaded via `require()` in modern
> Node.js, unless package consumers use the `--experimental-conditional-exports`
> flag.

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/pkg/package.json
{
  "type": "module",
  "main": "./index.cjs",
  "exports": {
    "require": "./index.cjs",
    "default": "./wrapper.mjs"
  }
}
```

```js
// ./node_modules/pkg/index.cjs
exports.name = 'value';
```

```js
// ./node_modules/pkg/wrapper.mjs
import cjsModule from './index.cjs';
export const name = cjsModule.name;
```

In this example, the `name` from `import { name } from 'pkg'` is the same
singleton as the `name` from `const { name } = require('pkg')`. Therefore `===`
returns `true` when comparing the two `name`s and the divergent specifier hazard
is avoided.

If the module is not simply a list of named exports, but rather contains a
unique function or object export like `module.exports = function () { ... }`,
or if support in the wrapper for the `import pkg from 'pkg'` pattern is desired,
then the wrapper would instead be written to export the default optionally
along with any named exports as well:

```js
import cjsModule from './index.cjs';
export const name = cjsModule.name;
export default cjsModule;
```

This approach is appropriate for any of the following use cases:
* The package is currently written in CommonJS and the author would prefer not
  to refactor it into ES module syntax, but wishes to provide named exports for
  ES module consumers.
* The package has other packages that depend on it, and the end user might
  install both this package and those other packages. For example a `utilities`
  package is used directly in an application, and a `utilities-plus` package
  adds a few more functions to `utilities`. Because the wrapper exports
  underlying CommonJS files, it doesn’t matter if `utilities-plus` is written in
  CommonJS or ES module syntax; it will work either way.
* The package stores internal state, and the package author would prefer not to
  refactor the package to isolate its state management. See the next section.

A variant of this approach not requiring `--experimental-conditional-exports`
for consumers could be to add an export, e.g. `"./module"`, to point to an
all-ES module-syntax version of the package. This could be used via `import
'pkg/module'` by users who are certain that the CommonJS version will not be
loaded anywhere in the application, such as by dependencies; or if the CommonJS
version can be loaded but doesn’t affect the ES module version (for example,
because the package is stateless):

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/pkg/package.json
{
  "type": "module",
  "main": "./index.cjs",
  "exports": {
    ".": "./index.cjs",
    "./module": "./wrapper.mjs"
  }
}
```

If the `--experimental-conditional-exports` flag is dropped and therefore
[Conditional Exports][] become available without a flag, this variant could be
easily updated to use conditional exports by adding conditions to the `"."`
path; while keeping `"./module"` for backward compatibility.

##### Approach #2: Isolate State

The most straightforward `package.json` would be one that defines the separate
CommonJS and ES module entry points directly (requires
`--experimental-conditional-exports`):

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/pkg/package.json
{
  "type": "module",
  "main": "./index.cjs",
  "exports": {
    "require": "./index.cjs",
    "default": "./index.mjs"
  }
}
```

This can be done if both the CommonJS and ES module versions of the package are
equivalent, for example because one is the transpiled output of the other; and
the package’s management of state is carefully isolated (or the package is
stateless).

The reason that state is an issue is because both the CommonJS and ES module
versions of the package may get used within an application; for example, the
user’s application code could `import` the ES module version while a dependency
`require`s the CommonJS version. If that were to occur, two copies of the
package would be loaded in memory and therefore two separate states would be
present. This would likely cause hard-to-troubleshoot bugs.

Aside from writing a stateless package (if JavaScript’s `Math` were a package,
for example, it would be stateless as all of its methods are static), there are
some ways to isolate state so that it’s shared between the potentially loaded
CommonJS and ES module instances of the package:

1. If possible, contain all state within an instantiated object. JavaScript’s
   `Date`, for example, needs to be instantiated to contain state; if it were a
   package, it would be used like this:

    ```js
    import Date from 'date';
    const someDate = new Date();
    // someDate contains state; Date does not
    ```

   The `new` keyword isn’t required; a package’s function can return a new
   object, or modify a passed-in object, to keep the state external to the
   package.

1. Isolate the state in one or more CommonJS files that are shared between the
   CommonJS and ES module versions of the package. For example, if the CommonJS
   and ES module entry points are `index.cjs` and `index.mjs`, respectively:

    ```js
    // ./node_modules/pkg/index.cjs
    const state = require('./state.cjs');
    module.exports.state = state;
    ```

    ```js
    // ./node_modules/pkg/index.mjs
    import state from './state.cjs';
    export {
      state
    };
    ```

   Even if `pkg` is used via both `require` and `import` in an application (for
   example, via `import` in application code and via `require` by a dependency)
   each reference of `pkg` will contain the same state; and modifying that
   state from either module system will apply to both.

Any plugins that attach to the package’s singleton would need to separately
attach to both the CommonJS and ES module singletons.

This approach is appropriate for any of the following use cases:
* The package is currently written in ES module syntax and the package author
  wants that version to be used wherever such syntax is supported.
* The package is stateless or its state can be isolated without too much
  difficulty.
* The package is unlikely to have other public packages that depend on it, or if
  it does, the package is stateless or has state that need not be shared between
  dependencies or with the overall application.

Even with isolated state, there is still the cost of possible extra code
execution between the CommonJS and ES module versions of a package.

As with the previous approach, a variant of this approach not requiring
`--experimental-conditional-exports` for consumers could be to add an export,
e.g. `"./module"`, to point to an all-ES module-syntax version of the package:

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
// ./node_modules/pkg/package.json
{
  "type": "module",
  "main": "./index.cjs",
  "exports": {
    ".": "./index.cjs",
    "./module": "./index.mjs"
  }
}
```

If the `--experimental-conditional-exports` flag is dropped and therefore
[Conditional Exports][] become available without a flag, this variant could be
easily updated to use conditional exports by adding conditions to the `"."`
path; while keeping `"./module"` for backward compatibility.

## <code>import</code> Specifiers

### Terminology

The _specifier_ of an `import` statement is the string after the `from` keyword,
e.g. `'path'` in `import { sep } from 'path'`. Specifiers are also used in
`export from` statements, and as the argument to an `import()` expression.

There are four types of specifiers:

* _Bare specifiers_ like `'some-package'`. They refer to an entry point of a
  package by the package name.

* _Deep import specifiers_ like `'some-package/lib/shuffle.mjs'`. They refer to
  a path within a package prefixed by the package name.

* _Relative specifiers_ like `'./startup.js'` or `'../config.mjs'`. They refer
  to a path relative to the location of the importing file.

* _Absolute specifiers_ like `'file:///opt/nodejs/config.js'`. They refer
  directly and explicitly to a full path.

Bare specifiers, and the bare specifier portion of deep import specifiers, are
strings; but everything else in a specifier is a URL.

Only `file:` and `data:` URLs are supported. A specifier like
`'https://example.com/app.js'` may be supported by browsers but it is not
supported in Node.js.

Specifiers may not begin with `/` or `//`. These are reserved for potential
future use. The root of the current volume may be referenced via `file:///`.

#### `data:` Imports

<!-- YAML
added: v12.10.0
-->

[`data:` URLs][] are supported for importing with the following MIME types:

* `text/javascript` for ES Modules
* `application/json` for JSON
* `application/wasm` for WASM.

`data:` URLs only resolve [_Bare specifiers_][Terminology] for builtin modules
and [_Absolute specifiers_][Terminology]. Resolving
[_Relative specifiers_][Terminology] will not work because `data:` is not a
[special scheme][]. For example, attempting to load `./foo`
from `data:text/javascript,import "./foo";` will fail to resolve since there
is no concept of relative resolution for `data:` URLs. An example of a `data:`
URLs being used is:

```js
import 'data:text/javascript,console.log("hello!");';
import _ from 'data:application/json,"world!"';
```

## import.meta

* {Object}

The `import.meta` metaproperty is an `Object` that contains the following
property:

* `url` {string} The absolute `file:` URL of the module.

## Differences Between ES Modules and CommonJS

### Mandatory file extensions

A file extension must be provided when using the `import` keyword. Directory
indexes (e.g. `'./startup/index.js'`) must also be fully specified.

This behavior matches how `import` behaves in browser environments, assuming a
typically configured server.

### No <code>NODE_PATH</code>

`NODE_PATH` is not part of resolving `import` specifiers. Please use symlinks
if this behavior is desired.

### No <code>require</code>, <code>exports</code>, <code>module.exports</code>, <code>\_\_filename</code>, <code>\_\_dirname</code>

These CommonJS variables are not available in ES modules.

`require` can be imported into an ES module using [`module.createRequire()`][].

Equivalents of `__filename` and `__dirname` can be created inside of each file
via [`import.meta.url`][].

```js
import { fileURLToPath } from 'url';
import { dirname } from 'path';

const __filename = fileURLToPath(import.meta.url);
const __dirname = dirname(__filename);
```

### No <code>require.extensions</code>

`require.extensions` is not used by `import`. The expectation is that loader
hooks can provide this workflow in the future.

### No <code>require.cache</code>

`require.cache` is not used by `import`. It has a separate cache.

### URL-based paths

ES modules are resolved and cached based upon
[URL](https://url.spec.whatwg.org/) semantics. This means that files containing
special characters such as `#` and `?` need to be escaped.

Modules will be loaded multiple times if the `import` specifier used to resolve
them have a different query or fragment.

```js
import './foo.mjs?query=1'; // loads ./foo.mjs with query of "?query=1"
import './foo.mjs?query=2'; // loads ./foo.mjs with query of "?query=2"
```

For now, only modules using the `file:` protocol can be loaded.

## Interoperability with CommonJS

### <code>require</code>

`require` always treats the files it references as CommonJS. This applies
whether `require` is used the traditional way within a CommonJS environment, or
in an ES module environment using [`module.createRequire()`][].

To include an ES module into CommonJS, use [`import()`][].

### <code>import</code> statements

An `import` statement can reference an ES module or a CommonJS module. Other
file types such as JSON or Native modules are not supported. For those, use
[`module.createRequire()`][].

`import` statements are permitted only in ES modules. For similar functionality
in CommonJS, see [`import()`][].

The _specifier_ of an `import` statement (the string after the `from` keyword)
can either be an URL-style relative path like `'./file.mjs'` or a package name
like `'fs'`.

Like in CommonJS, files within packages can be accessed by appending a path to
the package name; unless the package’s `package.json` contains an [`"exports"`
field][], in which case files within packages need to be accessed via the path
defined in `"exports"`.

```js
import { sin, cos } from 'geometry/trigonometry-functions.mjs';
```

Only the “default export” is supported for CommonJS files or packages:

<!-- eslint-disable no-duplicate-imports -->
```js
import packageMain from 'commonjs-package'; // Works

import { method } from 'commonjs-package'; // Errors
```

### <code>import()</code> expressions

Dynamic `import()` is supported in both CommonJS and ES modules. It can be used
to include ES module files from CommonJS code.

```js
(async () => {
  await import('./my-app.mjs');
})();
```

## CommonJS, JSON, and Native Modules

CommonJS, JSON, and Native modules can be used with
[`module.createRequire()`][].

```js
// cjs.cjs
module.exports = 'cjs';

// esm.mjs
import { createRequire } from 'module';

const require = createRequire(import.meta.url);

const cjs = require('./cjs.cjs');
cjs === 'cjs'; // true
```

## Builtin modules

Builtin modules will provide named exports of their public API. A
default export is also provided which is the value of the CommonJS exports.
The default export can be used for, among other things, modifying the named
exports. Named exports of builtin modules are updated only by calling
[`module.syncBuiltinESMExports()`][].

```js
import EventEmitter from 'events';
const e = new EventEmitter();
```

```js
import { readFile } from 'fs';
readFile('./foo.txt', (err, source) => {
  if (err) {
    console.error(err);
  } else {
    console.log(source);
  }
});
```

```js
import fs, { readFileSync } from 'fs';
import { syncBuiltinESMExports } from 'module';

fs.readFileSync = () => Buffer.from('Hello, ESM');
syncBuiltinESMExports();

fs.readFileSync === readFileSync;
```

## Experimental JSON Modules

Currently importing JSON modules are only supported in the `commonjs` mode
and are loaded using the CJS loader. [WHATWG JSON modules specification][] are
still being standardized, and are experimentally supported by including the
additional flag `--experimental-json-modules` when running Node.js.

When the `--experimental-json-modules` flag is included both the
`commonjs` and `module` mode will use the new experimental JSON
loader. The imported JSON only exposes a `default`, there is no
support for named exports. A cache entry is created in the CommonJS
cache, to avoid duplication. The same object will be returned in
CommonJS if the JSON module has already been imported from the
same path.

Assuming an `index.mjs` with

<!-- eslint-skip -->
```js
import packageConfig from './package.json';
```

The `--experimental-json-modules` flag is needed for the module
to work.

```bash
node index.mjs # fails
node --experimental-json-modules index.mjs # works
```

## Experimental Wasm Modules

Importing Web Assembly modules is supported under the
`--experimental-wasm-modules` flag, allowing any `.wasm` files to be
imported as normal modules while also supporting their module imports.

This integration is in line with the
[ES Module Integration Proposal for Web Assembly][].

For example, an `index.mjs` containing:

```js
import * as M from './module.wasm';
console.log(M);
```

executed under:

```bash
node --experimental-wasm-modules index.mjs
```

would provide the exports interface for the instantiation of `module.wasm`.

## Experimental Loader hooks

**Note: This API is currently being redesigned and will still change.**

<!-- type=misc -->

To customize the default module resolution, loader hooks can optionally be
provided via a `--experimental-loader ./loader-name.mjs` argument to Node.js.

When hooks are used they only apply to ES module loading and not to any
CommonJS modules loaded.

### Resolve hook

The resolve hook returns the resolved file URL and module format for a
given module specifier and parent file URL:

```js
import { URL, pathToFileURL } from 'url';
const baseURL = pathToFileURL(process.cwd()).href;

/**
 * @param {string} specifier
 * @param {string} parentModuleURL
 * @param {function} defaultResolver
 */
export async function resolve(specifier,
                              parentModuleURL = baseURL,
                              defaultResolver) {
  return {
    url: new URL(specifier, parentModuleURL).href,
    format: 'module'
  };
}
```

The `parentModuleURL` is provided as `undefined` when performing main Node.js
load itself.

The default Node.js ES module resolution function is provided as a third
argument to the resolver for easy compatibility workflows.

In addition to returning the resolved file URL value, the resolve hook also
returns a `format` property specifying the module format of the resolved
module. This can be one of the following:

| `format` | Description |
| --- | --- |
| `'builtin'` | Load a Node.js builtin module |
| `'commonjs'` | Load a Node.js CommonJS module |
| `'dynamic'` | Use a [dynamic instantiate hook][] |
| `'json'` | Load a JSON file |
| `'module'` | Load a standard JavaScript module |
| `'wasm'` | Load a WebAssembly module |

For example, a dummy loader to load JavaScript restricted to browser resolution
rules with only JS file extension and Node.js builtin modules support could
be written:

```js
import path from 'path';
import process from 'process';
import Module from 'module';
import { URL, pathToFileURL } from 'url';

const builtins = Module.builtinModules;
const JS_EXTENSIONS = new Set(['.js', '.mjs']);

const baseURL = pathToFileURL(process.cwd()).href;

/**
 * @param {string} specifier
 * @param {string} parentModuleURL
 * @param {function} defaultResolver
 */
export async function resolve(specifier,
                              parentModuleURL = baseURL,
                              defaultResolver) {
  if (builtins.includes(specifier)) {
    return {
      url: specifier,
      format: 'builtin'
    };
  }
  if (/^\.{0,2}[/]/.test(specifier) !== true && !specifier.startsWith('file:')) {
    // For node_modules support:
    // return defaultResolver(specifier, parentModuleURL);
    throw new Error(
      `imports must begin with '/', './', or '../'; '${specifier}' does not`);
  }
  const resolved = new URL(specifier, parentModuleURL);
  const ext = path.extname(resolved.pathname);
  if (!JS_EXTENSIONS.has(ext)) {
    throw new Error(
      `Cannot load file with non-JavaScript file extension ${ext}.`);
  }
  return {
    url: resolved.href,
    format: 'module'
  };
}
```

With this loader, running:

```console
NODE_OPTIONS='--experimental-loader ./custom-loader.mjs' node x.js
```

would load the module `x.js` as an ES module with relative resolution support
(with `node_modules` loading skipped in this example).

### Dynamic instantiate hook

To create a custom dynamic module that doesn't correspond to one of the
existing `format` interpretations, the `dynamicInstantiate` hook can be used.
This hook is called only for modules that return `format: 'dynamic'` from
the `resolve` hook.

```js
export async function dynamicInstantiate(url) {
  return {
    exports: ['customExportName'],
    execute: (exports) => {
      // Get and set functions provided for pre-allocated export names
      exports.customExportName.set('value');
    }
  };
}
```

With the list of module exports provided upfront, the `execute` function will
then be called at the exact point of module evaluation order for that module
in the import tree.

## Resolution Algorithm

### Features

The resolver has the following properties:

* FileURL-based resolution as is used by ES modules
* Support for builtin module loading
* Relative and absolute URL resolution
* No default extensions
* No folder mains
* Bare specifier package resolution lookup through node_modules

### Resolver Algorithm

The algorithm to load an ES module specifier is given through the
**ESM_RESOLVE** method below. It returns the resolved URL for a
module specifier relative to a parentURL, in addition to the unique module
format for that resolved URL given by the **ESM_FORMAT** routine.

The _"module"_ format is returned for an ECMAScript Module, while the
_"commonjs"_ format is used to indicate loading through the legacy
CommonJS loader. Additional formats such as _"addon"_ can be extended in future
updates.

In the following algorithms, all subroutine errors are propagated as errors
of these top-level routines unless stated otherwise.

_isMain_ is **true** when resolving the Node.js application entry point.

_defaultEnv_ is the conditional environment name priority array,
`["node", "default"]`.

<details>
<summary>Resolver algorithm specification</summary>

**ESM_RESOLVE**(_specifier_, _parentURL_, _isMain_)

> 1. Let _resolvedURL_ be **undefined**.
> 1. If _specifier_ is a valid URL, then
>    1. Set _resolvedURL_ to the result of parsing and reserializing
>       _specifier_ as a URL.
> 1. Otherwise, if _specifier_ starts with _"/"_, then
>    1. Throw an _Invalid Specifier_ error.
> 1. Otherwise, if _specifier_ starts with _"./"_ or _"../"_, then
>    1. Set _resolvedURL_ to the URL resolution of _specifier_ relative to
>       _parentURL_.
> 1. Otherwise,
>    1. Note: _specifier_ is now a bare specifier.
>    1. Set _resolvedURL_ the result of
>       **PACKAGE_RESOLVE**(_specifier_, _parentURL_).
> 1. If _resolvedURL_ contains any percent encodings of _"/"_ or _"\\"_ (_"%2f"_
>    and _"%5C"_ respectively), then
>    1. Throw an _Invalid Specifier_ error.
> 1. If the file at _resolvedURL_ does not exist, then
>    1. Throw a _Module Not Found_ error.
> 1. Set _resolvedURL_ to the real path of _resolvedURL_.
> 1. Let _format_ be the result of **ESM_FORMAT**(_resolvedURL_, _isMain_).
> 1. Load _resolvedURL_ as module format, _format_.

**PACKAGE_RESOLVE**(_packageSpecifier_, _parentURL_)

> 1. Let _packageName_ be *undefined*.
> 1. Let _packageSubpath_ be *undefined*.
> 1. If _packageSpecifier_ is an empty string, then
>    1. Throw an _Invalid Specifier_ error.
> 1. Otherwise,
>    1. If _packageSpecifier_ does not contain a _"/"_ separator, then
>       1. Throw an _Invalid Specifier_ error.
>    1. Set _packageName_ to the substring of _packageSpecifier_
>       until the second _"/"_ separator or the end of the string.
> 1. If _packageName_ starts with _"."_ or contains _"\\"_ or _"%"_, then
>    1. Throw an _Invalid Specifier_ error.
> 1. Let _packageSubpath_ be _undefined_.
> 1. If the length of _packageSpecifier_ is greater than the length of
>    _packageName_, then
>    1. Set _packageSubpath_ to _"."_ concatenated with the substring of
>       _packageSpecifier_ from the position at the length of _packageName_.
> 1. If _packageSubpath_ contains any _"."_ or _".."_ segments or percent
>    encoded strings for _"/"_ or _"\\"_, then
>    1. Throw an _Invalid Specifier_ error.
> 1. If _packageSubpath_ is _undefined_ and _packageName_ is a Node.js builtin
>    module, then
>    1. Return the string _"node:"_ concatenated with _packageSpecifier_.
> 1. While _parentURL_ is not the file system root,
>    1. Let _packageURL_ be the URL resolution of _"node_modules/"_
>       concatenated with _packageSpecifier_, relative to _parentURL_.
>    1. Set _parentURL_ to the parent folder URL of _parentURL_.
>    1. If the folder at _packageURL_ does not exist, then
>       1. Set _parentURL_ to the parent URL path of _parentURL_.
>       1. Continue the next loop iteration.
>    1. Let _pjson_ be the result of **READ_PACKAGE_JSON**(_packageURL_).
>    1. If _packageSubpath_ is _undefined__, then
>       1. Return the result of **PACKAGE_MAIN_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_,
>          _pjson_).
>    1. Otherwise,
>       1. If _pjson_ is not **null** and _pjson_ has an _"exports"_ key, then
>          1. Let _exports_ be _pjson.exports_.
>          1. If _exports_ is not **null** or **undefined**, then
>             1. Return **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_,
>                _packageSubpath_, _pjson.exports_).
>       1. Return the URL resolution of _packageSubpath_ in _packageURL_.
> 1. Set _selfUrl_ to the result of
>    **SELF_REFERENCE_RESOLE**(_packageSpecifier_, _parentURL_).
> 1. If _selfUrl_ isn't empty, return _selfUrl_.
> 1. Throw a _Module Not Found_ error.

**SELF_REFERENCE_RESOLVE**(_specifier_, _parentURL_)

> 1. Let _packageURL_ be the result of **READ_PACKAGE_SCOPE**(_parentURL_).
> 1. If _packageURL_ is **null**, then
>    1. Return an empty result.
> 1. Let _pjson_ be the result of **READ_PACKAGE_JSON**(_packageURL_).
> 1. Set _name_ to _pjson.name_.
> 1. If _name_ is empty, then return an empty result.
> 1. If _name_ is equal to _specifier_, then
>    1. Return the result of **PACKAGE_MAIN_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _pjson_).
> 1. If _specifier_ starts with _name_ followed by "/", then
>    1. Set _subpath_ to everything after the "/".
>    1. If _pjson_ is not **null** and _pjson_ has an _"exports"_ key, then
>       1. Let _exports_ be _pjson.exports_.
>       1. If _exports_ is not **null** or **undefined**, then
>          1. Return **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _subpath_,
>             _pjson.exports_).
>    1. Return the URL resolution of _subpath_ in _packageURL_.
> 1. Otherwise return an empty result.

**PACKAGE_MAIN_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _pjson_)

> 1. If _pjson_ is **null**, then
>    1. Throw a _Module Not Found_ error.
> 1. If _pjson.exports_ is not **null** or **undefined**, then
>    1. If _exports_ is an Object with both a key starting with _"."_ and a key
>       not starting with _"."_, throw an "Invalid Package Configuration" error.
>    1. If _pjson.exports_ is a String or Array, or an Object containing no
>       keys starting with _"."_, then
>       1. Return **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_TARGET_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_,
>          _pjson.exports_, _""_).
>    1. If _pjson.exports_ is an Object containing a _"."_ property, then
>       1. Let _mainExport_ be the _"."_ property in _pjson.exports_.
>       1. Return **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_TARGET_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_,
>          _mainExport_, _""_).
> 1. If _pjson.main_ is a String, then
>    1. Let _resolvedMain_ be the URL resolution of _packageURL_, "/", and
>       _pjson.main_.
>    1. If the file at _resolvedMain_ exists, then
>       1. Return _resolvedMain_.
> 1. If _pjson.type_ is equal to _"module"_, then
>    1. Throw a _Module Not Found_ error.
> 1. Let _legacyMainURL_ be the result applying the legacy
>    **LOAD_AS_DIRECTORY** CommonJS resolver to _packageURL_, throwing a
>    _Module Not Found_ error for no resolution.
> 1. Return _legacyMainURL_.

**PACKAGE_EXPORTS_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _packagePath_, _exports_)
> 1. If _exports_ is an Object with both a key starting with _"."_ and a key not
>    starting with _"."_, throw an "Invalid Package Configuration" error.
> 1. If _exports_ is an Object and all keys of _exports_ start with _"."_, then
>    1. Set _packagePath_ to _"./"_ concatenated with _packagePath_.
>    1. If _packagePath_ is a key of _exports_, then
>       1. Let _target_ be the value of _exports\[packagePath\]_.
>       1. Return **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_TARGET_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _target_,
>          _""_, _defaultEnv_).
>    1. Let _directoryKeys_ be the list of keys of _exports_ ending in
>       _"/"_, sorted by length descending.
>    1. For each key _directory_ in _directoryKeys_, do
>       1. If _packagePath_ starts with _directory_, then
>          1. Let _target_ be the value of _exports\[directory\]_.
>          1. Let _subpath_ be the substring of _target_ starting at the index
>             of the length of _directory_.
>          1. Return **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_TARGET_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _target_,
>             _subpath_, _defaultEnv_).
> 1. Throw a _Module Not Found_ error.

**PACKAGE_EXPORTS_TARGET_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _target_, _subpath_, _env_)

> 1. If _target_ is a String, then
>    1. If _target_ does not start with _"./"_, throw a _Module Not Found_
>       error.
>    1. If _subpath_ has non-zero length and _target_ does not end with _"/"_,
>       throw a _Module Not Found_ error.
>    1. If _target_ or _subpath_ contain any _"node_modules"_ segments including
>       _"node_modules"_ percent-encoding, throw a _Module Not Found_ error.
>    1. Let _resolvedTarget_ be the URL resolution of the concatenation of
>       _packageURL_ and _target_.
>    1. If _resolvedTarget_ is contained in _packageURL_, then
>       1. Let _resolved_ be the URL resolution of the concatenation of
>          _subpath_ and _resolvedTarget_.
>       1. If _resolved_ is contained in _resolvedTarget_, then
>          1. Return _resolved_.
> 1. Otherwise, if _target_ is a non-null Object, then
>    1. If _target_ has an object key matching one of the names in _env_, then
>       1. Let _targetValue_ be the corresponding value of the first object key
>          of _target_ in _env_.
>       1. Let _resolved_ be the result of **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_TARGET_RESOLVE**
>          (_packageURL_, _targetValue_, _subpath_, _env_).
>       1. Assert: _resolved_ is a String.
>       1. Return _resolved_.
> 1. Otherwise, if _target_ is an Array, then
>    1. For each item _targetValue_ in _target_, do
>       1. If _targetValue_ is an Array, continue the loop.
>       1. Let _resolved_ be the result of
>          **PACKAGE_EXPORTS_TARGET_RESOLVE**(_packageURL_, _targetValue_,
>          _subpath_, _env_), continuing the loop on abrupt completion.
>       1. Assert: _resolved_ is a String.
>       1. Return _resolved_.
> 1. Throw a _Module Not Found_ error.

**ESM_FORMAT**(_url_, _isMain_)

> 1. Assert: _url_ corresponds to an existing file.
> 1. Let _pjson_ be the result of **READ_PACKAGE_SCOPE**(_url_).
> 1. If _url_ ends in _".mjs"_, then
>    1. Return _"module"_.
> 1. If _url_ ends in _".cjs"_, then
>    1. Return _"commonjs"_.
> 1. If _pjson?.type_ exists and is _"module"_, then
>    1. If _isMain_ is **true** or _url_ ends in _".js"_, then
>       1. Return _"module"_.
>    1. Throw an _Unsupported File Extension_ error.
> 1. Otherwise,
>    1. If _isMain_ is **true**, then
>       1. Return _"commonjs"_.
>    1. Throw an _Unsupported File Extension_ error.

**READ_PACKAGE_SCOPE**(_url_)

> 1. Let _scopeURL_ be _url_.
> 1. While _scopeURL_ is not the file system root,
>    1. If _scopeURL_ ends in a _"node_modules"_ path segment, return **null**.
>    1. Let _pjson_ be the result of **READ_PACKAGE_JSON**(_scopeURL_).
>    1. If _pjson_ is not **null**, then
>       1. Return _pjson_.
>    1. Set _scopeURL_ to the parent URL of _scopeURL_.
> 1. Return **null**.

**READ_PACKAGE_JSON**(_packageURL_)

> 1. Let _pjsonURL_ be the resolution of _"package.json"_ within _packageURL_.
> 1. If the file at _pjsonURL_ does not exist, then
>    1. Return **null**.
> 1. If the file at _packageURL_ does not parse as valid JSON, then
>    1. Throw an _Invalid Package Configuration_ error.
> 1. Return the parsed JSON source of the file at _pjsonURL_.

</details>

### Customizing ESM specifier resolution algorithm

The current specifier resolution does not support all default behavior of
the CommonJS loader. One of the behavior differences is automatic resolution
of file extensions and the ability to import directories that have an index
file.

The `--es-module-specifier-resolution=[mode]` flag can be used to customize
the extension resolution algorithm. The default mode is `explicit`, which
requires the full path to a module be provided to the loader. To enable the
automatic extension resolution and importing from directories that include an
index file use the `node` mode.

```bash
$ node index.mjs
success!
$ node index # Failure!
Error: Cannot find module
$ node --es-module-specifier-resolution=node index
success!
```

[Babel]: https://babeljs.io/
[CommonJS]: modules.html
[Conditional Exports]: #esm_conditional_exports
[ECMAScript-modules implementation]: https://github.com/nodejs/modules/blob/master/doc/plan-for-new-modules-implementation.md
[ES Module Integration Proposal for Web Assembly]: https://github.com/webassembly/esm-integration
[Node.js EP for ES Modules]: https://github.com/nodejs/node-eps/blob/master/002-es-modules.md
[Package Exports]: #esm_package_exports
[Terminology]: #esm_terminology
[WHATWG JSON modules specification]: https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#creating-a-json-module-script
[`"exports"` field]: #esm_package_exports
[`data:` URLs]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/Basics_of_HTTP/Data_URIs
[`esm`]: https://github.com/standard-things/esm#readme
[`export`]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/export
[`import()`]: #esm_import-expressions
[`import.meta.url`]: #esm_import_meta
[`import`]: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/import
[`module.createRequire()`]: modules.html#modules_module_createrequire_filename
[`module.syncBuiltinESMExports()`]: modules.html#modules_module_syncbuiltinesmexports
[dynamic instantiate hook]: #esm_dynamic_instantiate_hook
[special scheme]: https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#special-scheme
[the official standard format]: https://tc39.github.io/ecma262/#sec-modules
